NCERT Notes Class-9 History Notes Chapter-4: CBSE Class 9 History Notes are essential for students studying Social Science, as History is a crucial sub-subject that requires properly written answers. Scoring well in History is just as important as other subjects.

Our notes cover all the concepts related to the Indus Valley Civilization, the French Revolution, Globalisation, and Imperialism, which have significantly impacted our society. We’ve designed our CBSE Class 9 History notes to help students understand complex topics easily. By studying these notes, students can improve their chances of getting higher marks in their History exam.

Why Deforestation?

Deforestation is when forests disappear, and it’s been happening for many centuries, not just recently. It started a long time ago, but it became much worse during colonial times when it became more organized and widespread.

Land to be Improved

In 1600, about one-sixth of India’s land was used for farming. But now, it’s increased to about half. This happened because as the population grew over the centuries, people needed more food. So, farmers cleared forests and started farming on new land. During colonial times, farming grew even faster for a few reasons. First, the British encouraged growing crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton for trade.

These crops were in demand in Europe, where more people were living in cities and industries needed raw materials. Second, the colonial government saw forests as unproductive and wanted to use the land for farming to make money. So, between 1880 and 1920, farming expanded by about 6.7 million hectares. We often think that more farming means progress. But we need to remember that clearing forests for farming can have negative effects too.

Sleepers on the Tracks

In the early 19th century, England faced a problem as its oak forests were disappearing. Without enough timber, the Royal Navy couldn’t build ships, which were vital for protecting the empire. So, in the 1820s, British officials sent teams to India to find wood. Soon, India began exporting large amounts of timber. Then, railways became important for colonial trade and moving troops. Trains needed wood for fuel and sleepers to support the tracks. Each mile of track needed thousands of sleepers. By the 1860s, the railway network in India was growing fast. This led to more trees being cut down. For example, in the Madras Presidency, 35,000 trees were cut every year just for sleepers. Contractors were hired to get the wood, and they cut trees without much care. As a result, forests near the railway tracks started disappearing quickly.

Plantations

To meet Europe’s increasing demand for tea, coffee, and rubber, large parts of natural forests were cleared. The colonial government controlled the forests and gave extensive land to European planters at low prices. These areas were then fenced off, forests were cleared, and tea or coffee plants were grown there.

The Rise of Commercial Forestry

The British were concerned about the uncontrolled use of trees by traders and the local population, fearing it would lead to the destruction of forests. To address this issue, Dietrich Brandis, a German expert, was appointed as the first Inspector General of Forests in India. He recognized the need for a proper forest management system and the training of people in conservation science. In 1864, the Indian Forest Service was established, headquartered in Dehradun.

Scientific forestry involved cutting down natural forests, which had various types of trees. The Forest Act was passed in 1906, with subsequent amendments in 1878 and 1927. The 1878 Act classified forests into reserved, protected, and village forests, with the best forests designated as “reserved forests.”

How were the Lives of People Affected?

Foresters and villagers had different ideas about what makes a good forest. Villagers preferred forests with a variety of species to meet various needs like fuel, fodder, and leaves. However, the forest department preferred trees suitable for building ships or railways, favoring species like teak and sal while cutting down others.

In forest areas, people rely on forest products for many purposes. Fruits, tubers, and herbs provide nutrition and medicine. Wood is used for agricultural tools like yokes and ploughs, while bamboo makes fences, baskets, and umbrellas. Various parts of plants serve different needs, such as using leaves for disposable plates and cups, creeper for ropes, and bark for grating vegetables. Oil for cooking and lighting can be extracted from the mahua tree fruit.

The Forest Act brought hardships for villagers nationwide. Everyday activities like collecting wood, grazing cattle, gathering fruits and roots, and hunting became illegal. People resorted to stealing wood from forests, risking encounters with forest guards who often demanded bribes. Women, especially, faced challenges collecting fuelwood. Police and forest guards sometimes harassed people by demanding free food.

How did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

European colonialism had a significant impact on shifting cultivation, also known as swidden agriculture, which is a traditional practice in many regions across Asia, Africa, and South America. It involves cutting and burning parts of the forest in rotation, sowing seeds in the ashes after the first monsoon rains, and harvesting the crop by October-November. These plots are then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to regenerate.

Local names for shifting cultivation include lading, milpa, chitemene, tavy, chena, dhya, penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad, and kumri. However, European foresters viewed this practice as harmful to forests, as they believed that land used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees suitable for railway timber. They also feared the risk of forest fires and found it challenging to calculate taxes in areas practicing shifting cultivation.

As a result, many governments decided to ban shifting cultivation, leading to the forcible displacement of communities from their forest homes. Some had to change occupations, while others resisted through various forms of rebellion, both large and small.

Who could Hunt?

The implementation of new forest laws brought about further changes in the lives of forest dwellers. Previously, many people relied on hunting deer, partridges, and other small animals for survival, but this practice was now prohibited, and those caught hunting were punished for poaching. While forest laws restricted people’s customary rights to hunt, hunting of big game became a recreational sport.

In India, hunting of tigers and other animals had long been part of court and noble culture, as depicted in many Mughal paintings showing princes and emperors on hunts. However, under colonial rule, hunting escalated dramatically, leading to the near extinction of various species. The British viewed large animals as symbols of a wild and primitive society, and believed that by killing them, they could civilize India. Rewards were offered for killing tigers, wolves, and other large animals, under the pretext that they posed a threat to cultivators. Between 1875 and 1925, over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards, and 200,000 wolves were killed for rewards.

The tiger, in particular, became prized as a sporting trophy. For example, the Maharaja of Sarguja alone shot 1,157 tigers and 2,000 leopards up to 1957. Even British administrators participated in the hunting, with George Yule reportedly killing 400 tigers. Initially, certain forest areas were reserved for hunting, but it was only later that environmentalists and conservators began advocating for the protection of these animal species, rather than their destruction.

New Trades, New Employments and New Services

After the forest department took control of the forests, many people faced disadvantages, but some found new opportunities in trade. Communities across the world, like the Mundurucu peoples of the Brazilian Amazon, shifted from traditional occupations to trading forest products. In India, forest product trading dates back to the medieval period, with adivasi communities trading various goods through nomadic groups like the Banjaras.

However, British regulation drastically altered the trading landscape. Large European firms were given exclusive trading rights in specific forest areas, limiting local grazing and hunting practices. This led to the displacement of pastoralist and nomadic communities like the Korava, Karacha, and Yerukula, who were sometimes labeled as “criminal tribes” and forced into labor in factories, mines, and plantations.

While new work opportunities arose, they didn’t always translate to improved well-being. For example, in Assam, forest communities like the Santhals, Oraons, and Gonds were recruited to work on tea plantations. Their wages were low, working conditions were poor, and returning to their home villages was difficult.

Rebellion in the Forest

Forest communities resisted the changes imposed on them through various rebellions led by notable leaders such as Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas, Birsa Munda in Chhotanagpur, and Alluri Sitarama Raju in Andhra Pradesh.

The People of Bastar

Bastar, situated in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh, shares borders with Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Maharashtra. It features a plateau in its central region, with the Chhattisgarh plain to the north and the Godavari plain to the south. The Indrawati River flows through Bastar from east to west. Various communities reside in Bastar, including the Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras, and Halbas. Despite speaking different languages, they share common customs and beliefs. According to local belief, each village received its land from the Earth and, in return, takes care of it by making offerings during agricultural festivals.

The people of Bastar hold reverence for the spirits of the river, forest, and mountain. Villages manage and protect their natural resources, with clear boundaries demarcated. Villagers pay a small fee, known as devsari, dand, or man, when accessing resources from neighboring forests. Some villages appoint watchmen to safeguard the forests, with households contributing grain to compensate them. Annually, headmen from villages in a pargana convene to discuss various issues, including forest management.

The Fears of the People

When the colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest in 1905, and halt shifting cultivation, hunting, and collection of forest produce, the people of Bastar grew anxious. Some villages were permitted to remain in the reserved forests under the condition that they provide free labor to the forest department for cutting and transporting trees and protecting the forest from fires. These villages became known as “forest villages.” Other villages were displaced without notice or compensation. Villagers had long suffered from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labor and goods by colonial officials, exacerbated by terrible famines in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908. Reservations became the tipping point.

People began discussing these issues in village councils, bazaars, and festivals, led by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest where the reservation first took place. While there was no single leader, Gunda Dhur from Nethanar village is often cited as significant. In 1910, messages circulated between villages through mango boughs, earth lumps, chillies, and arrows, inviting rebellion against the British.

Each village contributed to the rebellion expenses. Bazaars were looted, official houses, schools, and police stations were burnt and robbed, and grain redistributed. British troops were sent to suppress the rebellion, surrounding and firing upon adivasi leaders’ camps. Villages were deserted as people fled into the jungles. It took three months for the British to regain control, but they never captured Gunda Dhur. Eventually, work on reservation was temporarily suspended, and the reserved area reduced by half.

After Independence, the practice of excluding people from forests continued for industrial use. In the 1970s, the World Bank proposed replacing 4,600 hectares of natural sal forest with tropical pine for the paper industry, halted only after protests by local environmentalists.

Forest Transformations in Java

Java, now known for its rice production in Indonesia, was once predominantly covered with forests. The Dutch, who were the colonial power in Indonesia, initiated forest management on the island. Similar to the British, they aimed to acquire timber from Java for shipbuilding purposes. In 1600, Java had an estimated population of 3.4 million, with numerous villages in the fertile plains and communities residing in the mountains practicing shifting cultivation.

The Woodcutters of Java

The Kalangs of Java were a skilled community of forest cutters and shifting cultivators. Their expertise was so crucial that when the Mataram kingdom of Java split in 1755, the 6,000 Kalang families were evenly distributed between the two kingdoms. Without their skills, harvesting teak and constructing palaces would have been challenging for the kings. As the Dutch gained control over the forests in the eighteenth century, they attempted to enlist the Kalangs to work for them. However, in 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, although the uprising was eventually suppressed.

Dutch Scientific Forestry

In the nineteenth century, as territorial control became crucial, the Dutch introduced forest laws in Java to restrict villagers’ access to forests. These laws specified that wood could only be cut for certain purposes, like boat-making or house construction, and only from designated forests under close supervision. Villagers faced penalties for actions such as grazing cattle in young forests, transporting wood without a permit, or using forest roads with carts or cattle.

Similar to India, the need to manage forests for shipbuilding and railways led to the establishment of a forest service. In 1882, Java alone exported 280,000 sleepers. However, this required labor for tree cutting, log transportation, and sleeper preparation. Initially, the Dutch imposed rents on cultivated land in forests and then exempted some villages from these rents if they collectively provided free labor and buffaloes for timber cutting and transportation, known as the blandongdiensten system. Later, instead of rent exemption, forest villagers received small wages, but their right to cultivate forest land was restricted.

Samin’s Challenge

Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, situated in a teak forest area, began to challenge the state’s ownership of the forest. He argued that since the state did not create the elements of nature like wind, water, earth, and wood, it could not claim ownership over them. This viewpoint sparked a widespread movement, with Samin’s sons-in-law playing a role in organizing it. By 1907, around 3,000 families had adopted his ideas. Some of the followers of Samin protested against the Dutch authorities by lying down on their land during surveys, while others refused to pay taxes, fines, or perform compulsory labor.

War and Deforestation

The First and Second World Wars had significant effects on forests. In India, the forest department abandoned working plans during this time, leading to the unrestricted cutting of trees to meet British wartime demands. In Java, just before the Japanese occupation, the Dutch implemented a “scorched earth” policy, destroying sawmills and burning large piles of teak logs to prevent them from falling into Japanese hands. Subsequently, the Japanese exploited the forests extensively for their own war industries, compelling forest villagers to participate in tree cutting activities. Many villagers took advantage of this situation to expand cultivation in the forest.

After the war, the Indonesian forest service faced challenges in reclaiming this land. Similar to India, conflicts arose between people’s need for agricultural land and the forest department’s efforts to control and exclude people from forest areas.

New Developments in Forestry

Since the 1980s, governments in Asia and Africa have realized that the traditional approach of scientific forestry and keeping forest communities away from forests has led to numerous conflicts. Conservation of forests, rather than just timber collection, has emerged as a more critical objective.

Governments recognize that involving people living near forests is essential to achieve this goal. In many parts of India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have been preserved because villages protected them in sacred groves known as sarnas, devarakudu, kan, rai, etc. Some villages have taken up the responsibility of patrolling their forests, with each household taking turns, rather than relying solely on forest guards. Today, local forest communities and environmentalists are exploring various forms of forest management to ensure sustainable conservation practices.

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NCERT Notes Class-9 History Chapter Chapter-4: Forest Society and Colonialism

How did Colonial Rule Affect Forests and Forest Communities?

Colonial rule led to the enactment of forest laws that restricted access to forests and disrupted traditional practices like shifting cultivation. It also resulted in conflicts, displacements, and the exploitation of forest resources for colonial interests.

Who were some notable leaders of Forest-Related Movements during Colonial Rule?

Leaders like Birsa Munda in India and Surontiko Samin in Java emerged to lead movements against colonial forest policies. They protested against the oppressive laws and displacement of forest communities.

What were the Impacts of World Wars on Forests and Forest Management?

World Wars disrupted forest management, with forests exploited for wartime needs. Post-war, conflicts arose over land use between forest departments and local communities.

What were the Consequences of World Wars on Forests and Forest Management?

The World Wars disrupted forest management, with forests exploited for wartime needs. Post-war, conflicts emerged over land use between forest authorities and local populations.