NCERT Notes Class 9 History Chapter 5: Class 9 History Notes for Chapter 5 Pastoralists in the Modern World, are important for CBSE board exams. They are made by subject experts and cover all the main topics like Pastoral Nomads and their movements.

By reading these notes, students can better understand the key concepts of Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life, which will help them prepare effectively for their CBSE Class 9 exams. They are a great resource for class 9 students who want to learn more about the world around them.

NCERT Notes Class 9 History Chapter 5: Pastoralists in the Modern World

Pastoral Nomads and their Movements

In the Mountains

The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir continue their age-old tradition of herding goats and sheep across the rugged terrain of the Himalayas. Originating from the nineteenth-century migration in search of pastures, they have established a seasonal pattern of movement. In winter, when snow blankets the high mountains, they seek refuge in the low hills of the Siwalik range, where dry scrub forests offer sustenance for their herds.

As spring approaches, the Bakarwals embark on their northern journey, forming caravans known as kafilas. Crossing the Pir Panjal passes into the lush valleys of Kashmir, they revel in the abundance of grasses for their animals. By September, they commence their descent back to their winter base, making the most of the remaining grazing months before the snowfall.

Similar to the Bakarwals, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh follow a parallel seasonal cycle. They too spend winters in the Siwalik hills, then migrate northward in April to summer pastures in Lahul and Spiti. From there, some ascend to higher mountain meadows, returning in September to complete their agricultural tasks before descending to the lowlands.

In Garhwal and Kumaon, Gujjar cattle herders adopt a comparable lifestyle, alternating between winter forests and summer bugyals (meadows). Originally from Jammu, they ventured into the UP hills seeking greener pastures. This cyclical movement between seasons is a hallmark of Himalayan pastoral communities, including the Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris. It not only sustains their livelihood but also ensures the sustainable use of pastures by allowing them to recover from overuse.

On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts

Pastoralists were not confined to the mountainous regions but also thrived in plateaus, plains, and deserts across India. Among these communities, the Dhangars of Maharashtra played a significant role. In the early twentieth century, their population in the region was sizable, engaging primarily in shepherding, blanket weaving, and buffalo herding.

During the monsoon, Dhangar shepherds resided in the semi-arid central plateau of Maharashtra, using the scrub-covered terrain as grazing grounds for their flocks. By October, they embarked on a month-long journey westward to the fertile Konkan region, where they were welcomed by Konkani peasants. Here, they assisted in fertilizing fields after the kharif harvest, and in return, received supplies of rice, a commodity scarce on the plateau.

As the monsoon waned, the Dhangars returned to the plateau, as the damp conditions of the coastal areas were unsuitable for their sheep. Similarly, in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, cattle, goat, and sheep herders like the Gollas, Kurumas, and Kurubas led a nomadic lifestyle, dictated by the alternation of the monsoon and dry season.

Unlike mountain pastoralists, whose movements were influenced by cold and snow, these groups shifted their herds based on the monsoon cycle. They sought coastal tracts during the dry season and returned to the plateau when rains arrived, except for buffaloes, which preferred swampy coastal areas during the monsoon.

Another notable pastoral group, the Banjaras, traversed vast distances across Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra in search of good pastureland for their cattle. Similarly, in the deserts of Rajasthan, the Raikas combined cultivation with pastoralism, adjusting their movements according to the availability of water and pasture.

These pastoral communities thrived by carefully balancing various factors, including the duration of stay in one area, access to water and pasture, and interactions with farmers to graze in harvested fields. Their livelihoods relied on a diverse range of activities, from cultivation and trade to herding, ensuring their adaptation to the dynamic landscapes they inhabited.

Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

Under colonial rule, pastoralists experienced significant changes that affected their way of life. These changes included:

Transformation of Grazing Lands: The colonial state aimed to convert all grazing lands into cultivated farms to increase revenue collection. Uncultivated land was perceived as unproductive and wasteful, leading to the enactment of Waste Land Rules. Pastoralists’ traditional grazing tracts were taken over for cultivation, reducing available pastures.

Forest Acts: Forest Acts were enacted to declare forests as “Reserved” or “Protected,” restricting pastoralists’ access to valuable forage. Even in areas where access was permitted, their movements were regulated, requiring permits for entry and specifying duration of stay. Pastoralists were prevented from staying in areas with ample forage beyond the permitted time, leading to fines for overstaying.

Nomadic Suspicions: British officials viewed nomadic pastoralists with suspicion and sought to settle the population in villages to facilitate control. Communities engaged in nomadic practices were labeled as “Criminal Tribes” under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871. These communities were restricted to notified village settlements and required permits to leave. Village police monitored their movements closely.

Taxation: To increase revenue, the colonial government imposed taxes on various aspects of pastoralist life, including land, canal water, trade goods, and animals. Pastoralists were required to pay taxes on every animal grazed, with tax rates escalating rapidly over time. Tax collection became more efficient, with contractors initially responsible for collection, followed by direct taxation on pastoralists, requiring them to obtain passes and pay taxes based on the number of cattle heads they owned.

How Did These Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?

The measures implemented by colonial authorities resulted in a shortage of pastures for pastoralists, leading to various challenges. As grazing lands were converted into cultivated fields, the available pasture area decreased, forcing existing animal stocks to feed on dwindling grazing land. Restrictions on pastoral movements further exacerbated the situation, as continuous use of pastures led to their degradation and reduced forage quality, worsening the shortage of food for animals and causing a decline in animal health and productivity.

In response to these changes, pastoralists employed several coping strategies. Some pastoralists opted to reduce the number of cattle they owned, while others sought out new pastures to sustain their herds. However, the partition of India in 1947 posed additional challenges for pastoralists, particularly for the Raikas who were accustomed to grazing their camels along the banks of the Indus River. The new political boundaries disrupted their traditional grazing patterns, forcing them to find alternative grazing grounds.

Some wealthier pastoralists chose to purchase land and settle down, abandoning their nomadic lifestyles. Others diversified their livelihoods by engaging in agriculture, trading, or other occupations. However, many poorer pastoralists resorted to borrowing money from moneylenders to survive, perpetuating cycles of debt and dependence.

Despite these challenges, pastoral communities persisted and, in some regions, their populations even expanded. Similar challenges and transformations faced by pastoral communities due to new laws and settlement patterns have been observed in other parts of the world, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of these communities in the face of socio-economic changes.

Pastoralism in Africa

The dependency on pastoralism for livelihood persists among over 22 million Africans to this day, highlighting the enduring significance of this activity across the continent. Similar to pastoralists in India, African pastoralists have experienced profound transformations during both colonial and post-colonial eras.

Where Have the Grazing Lands Gone?

The Maasais have faced the continuous loss of their grazing lands, a problem exacerbated by colonial interventions. Before colonial times, Maasailand spanned a vast area from northern Kenya to the steppes of northern Tanzania. However, with the scramble for territorial possessions in Africa by European imperial powers in the late nineteenth century, Maasailand was divided, with an international boundary separating British Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885. This division led to the gradual takeover of the best grazing lands for white settlement, reducing the Maasai’s territory by about 60%. Consequently, they were confined to a smaller arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.

The Borders are Closed

In the nineteenth century, African pastoralists had the freedom to roam vast areas in search of pastures, allowing them to move their cattle to different regions as needed. However, by the late nineteenth century, colonial governments began imposing various restrictions on their mobility. Similar to the Maasai, other pastoral groups were also confined within special reserves, with the boundaries of these reserves dictating the limits of their movement. They were required to obtain special permits to move their livestock outside these reserves, and acquiring these permits often involved encountering trouble and harassment. Violators of these rules faced severe punishment.

Moreover, pastoralists were barred from entering markets in white areas and were often prohibited from engaging in trade. White settlers and European colonists viewed pastoralists as dangerous and savage, aiming to minimize contact with them. However, complete isolation was impractical as colonists relied on black labor for various tasks such as mining, road construction, and town development.

The imposition of new territorial boundaries and restrictions drastically altered the lives of pastoralists, adversely impacting both their pastoral and trading activities. While these restrictions did not entirely halt their trading endeavors, pastoralists were subjected to various limitations and scrutiny by colonial authorities. For instance, in colonial Africa, police were instructed to monitor the movements of pastoralists and prevent them from entering white areas. Instructions such as limiting the issuance of permits to enter certain territories were issued to restrict the number of natives entering these areas and maintain control over them. These measures significantly constrained the autonomy and livelihoods of pastoralist communities under colonial rule.

When Pastures Dry

Drought poses a significant threat to the livelihoods of pastoralists worldwide. When rainfall is insufficient and pastures become dry, cattle face the risk of starvation unless they can be relocated to areas with available forage. Traditionally, pastoralists have practiced nomadism, moving their herds from place to place to survive such hardships and prevent crises.

However, during the colonial period, the Maasai were confined to fixed areas within reserves and prohibited from seeking pastures elsewhere. This restriction deprived them of access to the best grazing lands and confined them to semi-arid regions prone to frequent droughts. Unable to move their cattle to areas with better grazing opportunities, large numbers of Maasai livestock perished due to starvation and disease during severe droughts.

For instance, an inquiry conducted in 1930 revealed that the Maasai in Kenya possessed significant livestock, including cattle, sheep, and donkeys. Yet, within just two years of severe drought in 1933 and 1934, over half of the cattle in the Maasai Reserve succumbed to the harsh conditions.

As the available grazing lands diminished, the impact of droughts became more severe, leading to a continuous decline in the livestock population of pastoralists. This trend highlights the vulnerability of pastoral communities to environmental challenges exacerbated by restrictions on their traditional mobility.

Not All Were Equally Affected

In Maasailand, the impact of colonial changes varied among pastoralists, with disparities evident within the society’s social structure. Before colonial rule, Maasai society was stratified into two main categories: elders and warriors. The elders held authority as the ruling group, convening in councils to govern the community and resolve disputes. Conversely, warriors, primarily composed of younger individuals, assumed responsibilities for defending the tribe, organizing cattle raids, and ensuring community protection.

Under British administration, significant alterations were introduced, particularly regarding governance. Chiefs were appointed to oversee various sub-groups of the Maasai, assuming responsibility for tribal affairs. Restrictions were imposed on raiding and warfare activities. Despite the disruptions caused by war and drought, these appointed chiefs managed to navigate the challenges and maintain their positions of authority.

However, the experiences of poor pastoralists were markedly different. During periods of conflict and famine, they faced substantial losses, often losing everything they possessed. Consequently, many were compelled to seek employment in urban areas, resorting to occupations such as charcoal burning or odd jobs to sustain themselves.

These colonial interventions precipitated social changes within Maasai society, operating at two distinct levels. Firstly, the traditional hierarchical structure based on age, represented by the elders and warriors, underwent disruption, although it did not entirely disintegrate. Secondly, a new socio-economic divide emerged between wealthy and impoverished pastoralists, highlighting the stratification within the community under colonial rule.

Conclusion

Pastoral communities across the globe face a myriad of challenges due to modernization. The implementation of new laws and the establishment of new borders significantly impact their traditional patterns of movement. Increasing restrictions on mobility make it arduous for pastoralists to find suitable pastures, leading to grazing difficulties and the deterioration of remaining grazing lands due to overuse.

During times of drought, pastoralists confront severe crises as cattle mortality rates soar. However, despite these challenges, pastoralists exhibit resilience and adaptability. They modify their annual migration routes, reduce their livestock numbers, and advocate for access to new grazing areas. Moreover, they exert political pressure on governments to provide relief, subsidies, and other forms of support.

Pastoralists demand a voice in the management of forests and water resources, recognizing the pivotal role these natural assets play in sustaining their way of life. Contrary to being relics of the past, pastoralists are dynamic members of modern society. Environmentalists and economists increasingly acknowledge that pastoral nomadism is well-suited to many hilly and arid regions worldwide, underscoring its relevance in contemporary times.

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NCERT Notes Class 9 History Chapter 5: Pastoralists in the Modern World- FAQs

Who are pastoralists?

Pastoralists are people who rely primarily on the herding of livestock for their livelihood, often moving their animals to fresh pastures as needed.

How do modern changes impact pastoral communities?

Modern changes, including new laws, borders, and restrictions on mobility, significantly affect pastoral communities’ traditional patterns of movement and access to grazing lands.

What challenges do pastoralists face during droughts?

During droughts, pastoralists confront severe crises as the scarcity of water and pasture leads to high mortality rates among their livestock.

How do pastoralists adapt to modern challenges?

Pastoralists adapt by modifying their migration routes, reducing livestock numbers, advocating for access to new grazing areas, and exerting political pressure for government support.

Are pastoralists relevant in the modern world?

Yes, pastoralists are dynamic members of modern society, and their lifestyle is recognized as suitable for many hilly and arid regions worldwide by environmentalists and economists.