In the annals of travel literature, François Bernier stands out as a figure whose observations of the Mughal Empire shaped Western perceptions of India. While Ibn Battuta marveled at the exotic and unfamiliar, Bernier adopted a more critical lens, comparing and contrasting what he saw in India with his native France.

His reflections on Indian society, particularly regarding land ownership and social structures, offer a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of the Mughal Empire.

Bernier and the “Degenerate” East| Class 12 History Notes

The Question of Landownership

Bernier’s keen observations led him to identify what he saw as a fundamental difference between Mughal India and Europe – the concept of land ownership. In his view, the lack of private property in land in India, where the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles, had disastrous consequences for the economy and society.

Bernier argued that without the incentive of private property, landholders were averse to long-term investment, leading to the ruination of agriculture and the oppression of the peasantry.

A Hierarchical Society

Bernier’s depiction of Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people subjugated by a small ruling class paints a stark picture of social hierarchy. He asserted that there was no middle class in India, with wealth and power concentrated in the hands of the ruling aristocracy.

This view, influenced by his observations of crown ownership of land, shaped Western perceptions of the social structures of the Mughal Empire.

Bernier’s Influence on Western Thought

Bernier’s descriptions of the Mughal Empire had a lasting impact on Western theorists, from Montesquieu to Karl Marx. Montesquieu used Bernier’s account to develop the concept of oriental despotism, portraying rulers in Asia as enjoying absolute authority over their impoverished subjects.

Marx, building on this idea, developed the concept of the Asiatic mode of production, arguing that surplus was appropriated by the state, leading to a stagnant society composed of autonomous village communities.

A More Complex Social Reality

While Bernier’s focus on projecting the Mughal state as tyrannical is evident, his observations occasionally hint at a more complex social reality. He acknowledged the existence of prosperous merchant communities and professional classes engaged in long-distance trade.

Despite his characterization of Mughal cities as dependent on imperial patronage, urban centers flourished as hubs of commerce, culture, and community.

Conclusion

While Bernier’s observations of the Mughal Empire reflect the biases and limitations of his time, they offer valuable insights into the socio-economic dynamics of the period. As we reassess his legacy, it is essential to recognize the complexities of Indian society and the diverse experiences of its inhabitants.

Bernier and the “Degenerate” East- FAQs

Who was François Bernier and why is he significant in the context of Indian history?

François Bernier was a 17th-century French physician and traveler who spent several years in the Mughal Empire, primarily during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb. His observations and writings about Indian society, particularly regarding landownership and social structures, have had a significant impact on Western perceptions of India and its history.

What were François Bernier’s main observations about landownership in the Mughal Empire?

Bernier identified a fundamental difference between Mughal India and Europe regarding landownership. He noted that in India, the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles, leading to what he saw as disastrous consequences for the economy and society. Bernier believed that this system hindered long-term investment in agriculture and contributed to the oppression of the peasantry.

How did François Bernier compare Mughal India with contemporary Europe?

Bernier’s observations were heavily influenced by his comparisons between Mughal India and contemporary Europe, particularly France. He generally emphasized the superiority of Europe, portraying India as the inverse of Europe. Bernier ordered perceived differences hierarchically, often presenting India as inferior to the Western world in terms of social, economic, and political structures.

How did François Bernier’s descriptions influence Western thinkers and theorists?

Bernier’s writings on the Mughal Empire had a lasting impact on Western thought, influencing thinkers from the 18th century onwards. His observations were used by philosophers like Montesquieu to develop concepts such as oriental despotism, which portrayed rulers in Asia as enjoying absolute authority over their impoverished subjects. Karl Marx also drew on Bernier’s ideas to develop the concept of the Asiatic mode of production.

How accurate were François Bernier’s descriptions of Indian society?

While Bernier’s observations provide valuable insights into the socio-economic dynamics of the Mughal Empire, they must be understood within the context of his own biases and limitations as a Western traveler in a foreign land. Bernier’s depictions often oversimplified the complexities of Indian society and ignored the diversity of experiences within it. Therefore, while his writings offer a perspective on Indian history, they should be approached critically and complemented by other sources for a comprehensive understanding.