Paths to Modernisation | Class 11 History: Paths to Modernisation | Class 11 History throws light on how two major countries in the Asian region Japan, China, and Korea have evolved over the years. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, countries like Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea became independent and modern nations.

In this article, we have talked about the Paths of Modernisation adopted by countries like Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea, Political Systems, the Meiji Restoration and Reforms, Japan’s re-emergence as a Global economic power, China, the Rise of the Communist Party of China, a new democracy being established, Reforms of 1978 Deng Xiaoping, and the Evolution of Korea and Taiwan.

Paths to Modernisation Chapter 7 | Class 11 History

Paths to Modernisation | Class 11 History

With time, different societies like Japan and China have evolved with their distinctive modernities. Japan succeeded in being free of colonialism and achieved rapid economic and industrial progress. The Chinese resisted colonial exploitation and their own bureaucratic landed elite through a combination of peasant rebellion, reform, and revolution.

Long history of Japanese and Chinese rulers can be found in historical documents. The rulers set official departments to keep records and write dynastic histories based on the past. Because of Japan being heavily influenced by China, history has given both a lot of importance.

Japan

Japan is a string of islands like the Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido islands. There is no major river system. It is a mountainous region and is situated in a very active earthquake zone.

There are various homogenous ethnic group, like there is a small Ainu minority and Koreans who were forcibly brought as labour when Korea was a Japanese colony.

Language spoken is mostly Japanese. Japan lacks a tradition of animal rearing. Rice is the staple crop and fish the major source of protein. Raw fish (sashimi or sushi) has now become a widely popular dish around the world as it is considered very healthy.

Political System of Japan

Japan became a modern country from the days of petty daimyo of Japan.

• In the twelfth century the imperial court lost power to shoguns, who in theory ruled in the name of the emperor. They ruled with the help of the samurais (the warrior class) and daimyo with their capital in Edo (modern Tokyo).

• In the 16th century, Samurai insured peace and order.

• Japan was divided into more than 250 domains under the rule of lords called daimyo.

In the late sixteenth century, three changes laid the pattern for future development.

• The peasantry was disarmed and only the samurai could carry swords. This ensured peace and order.

• The daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains, each with a large degree of autonomy

• The land surveys identified owners and taxpayers and graded land productivity to ensure a stable revenue base.

By the mid-17th century, Japan had the most populated city in the world – Edo and two other large cities – Osaka and Kyoto.

Growth of a commercial economy and a vibrant culture blossomed in the towns, where the fast growing class of merchants patronised theatre and the arts.

Social and intellectual changes like the study of ancient Japanese literature, led people to question the Chinese influence and promotion of the study of ancient Japanese literature.

Meiji Restoration

The Meiji restoration is an important event in the Japanese history. There was demands for trade and diplomatic relations. In 1853, the USA demanded Japan that the government sign a treaty that would permit trade and open diplomatic relations.

Japan lay on the route to China which the USA saw as a major market. At that time, there was only one Western country that traded with Japan, Holland.

In 1868, Shogun was removed and the Emperor was in Edo, which was made the capital. It was renamed as Tokyo, which means ‘eastern capital’.

Japan tried to develop its economy and a strong army. For this, the Japanese government came with the slogan ‘fukoku kyohei’ (rich country, strong army). This created a sense of nationhood. The government also built the ’emperor system’ – a system, where the Emperor along with the bureaucracy and the military, exercised power. The Emperor was considered to be a direct descendant of the Sun Goddess and shown as the leader of westernisation. His birthday became a national holiday. He wore Western-style military uniforms.

Meiji Reforms

An uprising forced the shogun from power in 1868, bringing the Emperor to Edo. Let us have a look at the major Meiji Reforms:

• Administrative Reforms: The Meiji government imposed a new administrative structure by altering old village and domain boundaries. In 1871, feudalism was abolished under the Meiji rule.

• Economic Reforms: Another Meiji reforms was modernization of the economy. Japan’s first railway line, between Tokyo and the port of Yokohama, was built in 1870-72. In 1872, modern banking institutions were launched. Zaibatsu (business families) dominated the economy.

• Industrial Reforms: Textile machinery was imported from Europe, and foreign technicians were employed to train workers, and to teach in universities and schools. The Japanese students were sent abroad. People involved in the manufacturing sector increased. Over half of those employed in modern factories were women. There was an increase in the size of factories.

• Agricultural Reforms: An agricultural tax was levied in order to raise funds.

• Constitutional Reforms: A new constitution was adopted by Japan in 1889. The Meiji Constitution had created a Diet and declared emperor as the commander of the forces; it was based on a restricted franchise.

• Educational Reforms: From the 1870s, a new school system came up. Schooling was compulsory for boys and girls and by 1910 was almost universal. Tuition fees were minimal. In 1877, the Tokyo University was established.

• Military Reforms: All young men over twenty had to do a period of military service. A modern military force was developed. The military and the bureaucracy were put under the direct command of the emperor.

Modernising the Economy

Another crucial aspect of the Meiji reforms involved modernizing the economy. This was financed through an agricultural tax. Japan’s inaugural railway line, connecting Tokyo to Yokohama, was constructed between 1870 and 1872. Textile machinery was imported from Europe, and foreign experts were employed to train workers, teach in educational institutions, and facilitate the education of Japanese students abroad. In 1872, modern banking institutions were established.

To promote industrial growth, companies such as Mitsubishi and Sumitomo received subsidies and tax incentives to become prominent shipbuilders, ensuring that Japanese trade was conducted using domestic ships. Zaibatsu, large business conglomerates controlled by individual families, held sway over the economy until after World War II.

The population, which stood at 35 million in 1872, surged to 55 million by 1920. To alleviate population pressure, the government actively encouraged migration, initially to Hokkaido, where the Ainu indigenous people resided, and later to destinations such as Hawaii, Brazil, and Japan’s expanding colonial empire.

Domestically, there was a shift towards urban areas as industrialization progressed. By 1925, 21 percent of the population lived in cities, a figure that rose to 32 percent (22.5 million) by 1935.

Industrial Workers

The number of individuals in manufacturing increased from 700,000 in 1870 to 4 million in 1913, with a majority employed in small-scale units lacking machinery or electric power, particularly women. Women organized the first modern strike in 1886, and although the number of male workers increased after 1900, it wasn’t until the 1930s that they outnumbered women.

Factory sizes also expanded over time, with the number of larger factories employing over a hundred workers increasing significantly. Despite this, a large number of small workshops employing fewer than five workers persisted, reflecting a family-centric approach. The rapid industrial growth and exploitation of natural resources resulted in environmental degradation, prompting protests such as Tanaka Shozo’s campaign against industrial pollution in 1897.

Aggressive Nationalism

The Meiji constitution featured a limited franchise and established a Diet with restricted powers, adopting the German term for parliament due to German legal influence. The leaders of the imperial restoration retained power and even formed political parties. From 1918 to 1931, prime ministers were elected by the public and formed cabinets, but later lost authority to national unity cabinets spanning party lines.

The emperor held command over the military, with a 1890 interpretation granting independent control to the army and navy. In 1899, only serving generals and admirals were allowed to become ministers, strengthening the military’s influence. This military buildup, coupled with Japan’s colonial expansion, stemmed from fears of Western dominance, which were exploited to suppress opposition to military expansion and higher taxation for defense spending.

Westernisation and Tradition

Successive Japanese intellectuals held varying perspectives on Japan’s relationship with other nations. Fukuzawa Yukichi, a prominent Meiji intellectual, advocated for Japan to adopt Western civilization, famously stating that Japan must “expel Asia” and embrace Western values. He played a key role in promoting Western learning and established Keio University.

Fukuzawa criticized traditional Japanese knowledge and emphasized the importance of not just modern institutions, but also the cultural essence of the West. However, the next generation of intellectuals questioned this wholesale acceptance of Western ideas, advocating for national pride based on indigenous values. Some, like Miyake Setsurei, argued for each nation to develop its unique talents for the benefit of global civilization.

Others, such as Ueki Emori, pushed for democracy and constitutional government, inspired by Western liberalism and principles like the natural rights of man. This intellectual pressure prompted the government to announce a constitution, signaling a shift towards more democratic governance.

Daily Life

The transition of Japan into a modern society is evident in the evolution of everyday life. Traditional patriarchal households, with multiple generations under the authority of the household head, gave way to the emergence of the nuclear family model, where the husband worked as the breadwinner and the wife as the homemaker. This shift in domestic structure led to increased demand for new domestic goods, family entertainment, and housing options.

In the 1920s, construction companies began offering affordable housing options, requiring a down payment of 200 yen and a monthly installment of 12 yen for ten years. This was significant considering that the monthly salary of a bank employee, typically a person with higher education, was around 40 yen at that time.

Overcoming Modernity

State-centered nationalism reached its peak in the 1930s and 1940s as Japan initiated wars to expand its empire in China and other parts of Asia, eventually leading to its involvement in the Second World War after the attack on Pearl Harbor. This era witnessed increased societal controls, the suppression and imprisonment of dissenters, and the emergence of patriotic societies, many of which were women’s organizations, to support the war effort.

In 1943, a significant symposium titled ‘Overcoming Modernity’ grappled with Japan’s dilemma of combating the West while striving to maintain modernity. Musician Moroi Saburo questioned how to elevate music from mere sensory stimulation to an art of the spirit, beyond simply adapting Japanese music to Western instruments. Philosopher Nishitani Keiji defined ‘modern’ as the convergence of three Western thought streams: the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the rise of natural sciences. He argued for Japan’s duty to establish a new world order, emphasizing the integration of science and religion for a Greater East Asia vision.

Re-emergence of Japan as a Global Economic Power

During the 1930, Japan exercised imperialist policy and invaded China to extend its colonial empire. Under the US-led Occupation (1945-47) Japan was demilitarised and a new constitution was introduced.

• The new constitution had Article 9, the so-called ‘no war clause’ that renounces the use of war as an instrument of state policy.

• Agrarian reforms, the re-establishment of trade unions and an attempt to dismantle the zaibatsu or large monopoly houses that dominated the Japanese economy were also carried out.

• Constitution was democratised.

• Political parties were revived and the first post-war elections held in 1946.

• In 1946 elections, Suffrage was given to women.

• The government, bureaucracy and industry had a close relationship.

• Japan introduced better goods at cheaper rates in the market with its advanced technologies.

• The Japanese economy was strengthened due to US support, and the demand created by the Korean and the Vietnamese wars.

• The 1964 Olympics held in Tokyo, symbolized the maturity of Japan’s economy.

• Introducing a network of high-speed Shinkansen or bullet trains, which started in 1964, ran at 200 miles per hour, added to its prosperity.

• In 1960s, several pressure groups protested against industrial pollution.

• Government action and new legal regulations helped to improve conditions.

China

China is a vast continental country with many climatic zones. A large part of China is mountainous. There are divergent ethnic groups – Han, Uighur, Hui, Manchu and Tibetan. Major languages spoken are Chinese and Cantonese.

The beginning of modern China can be traced to its first encounter with the West in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Liang Qichao used traditional ideas in new and different way to meet Western challenges. He popularised Chinese nationalism.

• Republican revolutionary like Sun Yat Sen inspired by the ideas from the Japan and the West, was the founder of modern China. In 1911 AD, he established a republic.

• The Communist Party of China (CCP) wanted to end age-old inequalities and keep the foreigners out.

Later, the Guomindang (the National People’s Party) and the Communist Party of China wanted to unite the Chinese. Chiang Kai Shek, leader of the Guomindang, militarised China. Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist Party of China organised a Soviets or peasant councils and fought Japanese colonisation.

When Guomindang (the National People’s Party) intensified attacks, the Soviets shifted the base to Yanan, after a ‘Long March’. The Communist Party captured power and established the People’s Republic in 1949.

Establishing the Republic

The overthrow of the Manchu empire in 1911 led to the establishment of a republic under Sun Yat-sen, considered the founder of modern China. Sun’s Three Principles—nationalism, democracy, and socialism—aimed to remove foreign influence, establish democratic governance, and address social inequalities.

The social and political situation remained unstable, with the May Fourth Movement of 1919 igniting protests against foreign control and traditional practices. Sun’s ideas shaped the political philosophy of the Guomindang, but after his death, Chiang Kai-shek emerged as its leader, focusing on military campaigns against warlords and communists.

The Guomindang’s urban-centered social base struggled to address rising social inequalities and ignored the peasantry. Despite efforts to modernize, industrial growth was slow, and urban workers faced poor conditions. Social and cultural change was propelled by the spread of education and journalism, reflected in publications like Life Weekly.

The Guomindang’s failure to address social inequalities and narrow political vision led to its downfall, as it prioritized military control over addressing the people’s needs.

The Rise of the Communist Party Of China

When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the Guomindang retreated. The long and exhausting war weakened China. Prices rose 30 per cent per month between 1945 and 1949, and utterly destroyed the lives of ordinary people.

Rural China faced two crises.

(a) Ecological Factors:

• Soil Exhanstion
• Deforestation
• Floods

(b) Socio – Economic Factors

• Exploitative land-tenure systems
• Indebtedness
• Primitive Technology
• Poor Communications

Establishing the New Democracy

The Peoples Republic of China government, established in 1949 was based on the principles of the ‘New Democracy’ which was an alliance of all social classes.

• Critical areas of the economy were put under government control.

• Private enterprise and Private ownership of land were abolished.

• In 1958, the Great Leap Forward movement was started. It tried to galvanise the country to industrialise rapidly.

• Mao was able to mobilise the masses to attain the goals set by the Party. He wanted to create a ‘socialist man’ who would have five loves: fatherland, people, labour, science and public property.

• Liu Shaochi (1896-1969) and Deng Xiaoping (1904-97) tried to modify the commune system which was not working properly.

Conflicting Visions: 1965-78

The conflict between Maoists advocating for the creation of a ‘Socialist Man’ and those opposing Mao’s ideological focus over expertise led to the launch of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965. Utilizing the Red Guards, comprised mainly of students and the military, Mao initiated a campaign against traditional culture, customs, and habits. This period saw the prioritization of Communist ideology over professional knowledge, with denunciations and slogans replacing rational debate.

The Cultural Revolution plunged China into turmoil, weakening the Party and severely disrupting the economy and education system. However, by the late 1960s, there was a shift in the tide. In 1975, the Party refocused on greater social discipline and emphasized the need to build an industrial economy to position China as a global power by the end of the century.

Reforms of 1978 Deng Xiaoping

Deng Xiaoping kept the party control strong while introducing a socialist market economy. In 1978, the Party declared its goal as the Four Modernisations  –  science, industry, agriculture and defence.

‘The Fifth Modernisation’ proclaimed that without Democracy the other modernisations would come to nothing.

In 1989, on the 17th anniversary of the May Fourth movement many intellectuals called for a greater openness and an end to ‘ossified dogmas’ (su shaozhi). Student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square in Beijing were brutally repressed.

The post-reform period had debates on ways to develop China. Revival of traditional ideas of Confucianism and arguments that China can build a modern society based on its own traditions rather than simply copying the West.

Taiwan

Taiwan had been a Japanese colony since the Chinese ceded it after the 1894-95 war with Japan. The Cairo Declaration (1943) and the Potsdam Proclamation (1949) restored sovereignty to China.

Taiwan was transformed into a democracy. It saw some major changes like:

• Martial law was lifted in 1987 and opposition parties were legally permitted.

• Diplomatically most countries have only trade missions in Taiwan instead of complete diplomatic ties because it (Taiwan) is considered to be part of China.

• The question of re-unification with the mainland remains a contentious issue but “Cross Strait” relations (that is between Taiwan and China) have been improving.

• China may be willing to tolerate a semi-autonomous Taiwan as long as it gives up any move to seek independence.

The Story of Korea

Beginnings of Modernisation

In the late nineteenth century, Korea’s Joseon Dynasty faced internal turmoil and external pressure from China, Japan, and Western powers. In response, Korea initiated modernization reforms across various sectors. However, Japan ultimately annexed Korea in 1910, ending the Joseon Dynasty’s over 500-year rule. Korean resentment towards Japan’s cultural suppression and forced assimilation fueled demonstrations and the establishment of a provisional government, seeking independence through international appeals.

Japan’s colonial rule ended in August 1945 with its defeat in World War II, but Korea’s independence was secured through the persistent efforts of activists. After liberation, the Korean Peninsula was temporarily divided along the 38th parallel, with the Soviets managing the North and the U.N. managing the South. This division became permanent in 1948, with separate governments established in North and South Korea.

A Post- War Nation

In June 1950, the Korean War erupted, pitting South Korea, supported by the US-led United Nations forces, against North Korea, backed by communist China, in a proxy conflict of the Cold War era. After three years, the war concluded in July 1953 with an armistice agreement, leaving Korea divided. The war inflicted significant human and economic losses, delaying free-market economic development and democratization. South Korea faced inflation, destruction of industrial facilities, and reliance on US economic assistance.

Following the war, South Korea’s first president, Syngman Rhee, initially elected democratically in 1948, extended his rule through illegal constitutional amendments. In April 1960, citizens protested against a rigged election in the April Revolution, leading to Rhee’s resignation.

The revolution spurred widespread public demands for change, but the subsequent Democratic Party administration struggled to address these due to internal conflicts. Reformist political forces emerged, and the student movement grew into a unification movement, which was met with disapproval from military authorities. In May 1961, General Park Chung-hee and other military leaders staged a coup, overthrowing the Democratic Party government.

Rapid Industrialization under Strong Leadership

In October 1963, Park Chung-hee, the leader of a military coup, was elected president, initiating a state-led, export-oriented economic policy to drive economic growth. This policy favored large corporations, focused on expanding employment, and enhanced Korea’s competitiveness. Economic growth began in the early 1960s with a shift from import substitution industrialization (ISI) to export-oriented policies, supporting labor-intensive light industries. Later, the focus shifted to value-added heavy and chemical industries, including steel, machinery, shipbuilding, electronics, and chemicals.

The New Village Movement, introduced in 1970, aimed to modernize agriculture and mobilize rural communities. It empowered rural populations to develop their villages and improve living conditions, later expanding to urban areas. Korea’s economic success was attributed to strong leadership, skilled bureaucrats, ambitious entrepreneurs, and a capable labor force. High levels of education, foreign investment, domestic savings, and remittances from overseas workers further fueled economic growth.

Park’s administration extended its power through constitutional revisions, allowing him to run for a third term and implementing the Yusin Constitution in 1972, granting the president extensive authority. However, political instability arose due to economic challenges, opposition to authoritarian measures, and Park’s assassination in October 1979, ending his administration.

Continued Economic Growth and Calls for Democratisation

Following Park Chung-hee’s death, the desire for democratization surged, but in December 1979, Chun Doo-hwan led another military coup. In May 1980, nationwide protests demanding democracy were met with military suppression and martial law, particularly in Gwangju, where citizens resisted. Chun eventually became president through an indirect election under the Yusin Constitution.

Chun’s administration intensified suppression of democratization efforts to maintain regime stability. Economic growth surged, leading to increased urbanization, education levels, and media advancements, fostering political awareness among citizens. In May 1987, revelations of a student’s torture death sparked widespread demands for democratization, culminating in the June Democracy Movement, involving students and the middle class. Pressure from these movements compelled the Chun administration to revise the constitution, allowing direct presidential elections and marking the start of a new era in Korean democracy.

Korean Democracy and IMF Crisis

The first direct election since 1971 was held in December 1987, resulting in the election of Roh Tae-woo, a military leader from Chun’s faction. Despite this, Korea continued its democratic progression. In 1990, opposition leader Kim Young-sam formed a large ruling party in collaboration with Roh’s party, leading to Kim’s civilian election as president in December 1992, marking the end of military rule and furthering democracy.

Under the new administration’s export-driven policy, Korean companies expanded globally until the early 1990s, focusing on heavy industries and electronics with government support. However, neoliberal pressures to open markets led Korea to join the OECD in 1996. Economic challenges, including a foreign currency crisis in 1997, were addressed with IMF assistance and citizen-led efforts like the Gold Collection Movement.

In December 1997, longtime opposition leader Kim Dae-jung was elected president, followed by peaceful transfers of power in 2008 to Lee Myung-bak and in 2012 to Park Geun-hye, Korea’s first female president. Park’s presidency faced controversy and impeachment in 2016, leading to her removal from office in March 2017. Moon Jae-in was then elected president in May 2017, marking the third peaceful transfer of power.

The candlelight protests of 2016 demonstrated citizens’ political maturity, showcasing the depth of Korean democracy. While economic development played a role, it was heightened political awareness among citizens that drove Korea’s republican advancement to its current state.

Two Roads to Modernisation

Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea have each followed unique paths to modernization, shaped by their distinct historical circumstances. Japan maintained its independence while modernizing, but its elite-driven approach fostered aggressive nationalism, sustained a repressive regime, and led to the establishment of a colonial empire. In contrast, China’s modernization was influenced by foreign imperialism and internal strife, with movements like the CCP rejecting traditions to build a highly centralized state.

While China has achieved economic growth through market reforms, its political system remains tightly controlled, leading to social inequalities and a resurgence of suppressed traditions. This presents a challenge for China in balancing development with cultural heritage preservation.

Conclusion

Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea became independent and modern nations by the late 19th and 20th centuries. Led by its elite, Japan’s modernisation resulted in aggressive nationalism and a colonial empire was put up. A highly centralised and modernised state was developed. China’s modernisation hindered by foreign imperialism and there was internal political and social instability. The Communist Party’s efforts to modernise China was successful in terms of economy but there was a repressive political system. Taiwan and Korea also underwent modernisation processes. Taiwan’s was being led by a authoritarian government while Korea had political instability and economic development. Thus we see how Japan, China, Korea and Taiwan’s histories show they became modernised.

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FAQs on Paths to Modernisation | Class 11 History

What were the major developments before the Meiji restoration that made it possible for Japan to modernise rapidly?

The developments which helped in the modernization of Japan before the Meiji restoration are:

• Peasants were not allowed to carry arms, only Samurai could carry swords now.

• Growth of population led to the growth of commercial economy.

• Efforts were made to develop silk industry.

• People developed reading habits.

• The export of precious metals restricted.

• Theatre and arts were patronized in towns.

• Land surveys were made.

Discuss how daily life was transformed as Japan developed?

In Japan, the patriarchal household system prevailed. Many generations lived together under the control of the head of the family. New ideas of the family spread. People became more affluent. Homu, the new home was a nuclear family where husband and wife lived together. The new concept of domesticity generated demands for new types of domestic goods and new forms of farming.

Who were the Shoguns?

Shoguns were rulers in the name of the emperors who enjoyed the right of the kings and had the power to control over cities.

Define Meiji Restoration.

After abolishing Tokugawa rule in Japan in 1868, Mutsuhito was given the title of Meiji which means enlightened ruler. This is known as the Meiji restoration in the history of Japan.

What is the Open Door Policy?

The United Stated of America adopted the open door policy in China. European powers made preparations for the partition of China in the 1890’s. The USA felt that it would be left out. So the US proposed the “Open Door Policy” or “Me too policy”. It meant that no country should be discriminated against China by other countries. All countries would have equal trade rights in China. Britain also supported “Open Door Policy”.