Electrostatics is the study of electric charges that are fixed. It includes an study of the forces that exist between charges as defined by Coulomb’s Law. The following concepts are involved in electrostatics: Electric charge, electric field, and electrostatic force.

Electrostatic forces are non contact forces that can push or pull on items without coming into contact with them. A storm cloud’s internal accumulation of static electricity produces lightning.

In this article, we will study in detail about electrostatics, its related definitions, formulas and examples based on them.

What is Electrostatics?

Electrostatics is a field of physics that studies the phenomena and behaviours of stationary or slow-moving electric charges. Coulomb’s law describes electrostatic processes, which result from the forces that electric charges apply to one another. even if forces generated by electrostatics appear to be rather little.

Electrostatics Phenomena Examples

Examples of Electrostatic Phenomena are as follows:

• A balloon rubbing hair
• The shock of touching a doorknob after crossing a carpet
• An electric balloon adhering to a wall
• A charged comb that gathers tiny bits of paper
• rubbing nylon clothing against flesh or other materials
• Using a towel to rub a rod
• Utilising a TV screen
• Putting on winter clothing
• Making use of a photocopier

What is Electric Charge?

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that determines how it interacts with electromagnetic fields. When charges are stationary, they produce an electric field around them, and when in motion, they produce a magnetic field as well. Electric charge comes in two types: positive and negative. Like charges repel whereas unlike charges attract.

Basic Properties of Electric Charge

Electric charge possesses three fundamental properties:

• Quantization: Electric charge is quantized, meaning charges are always found in integer multiples of the elementary charge(e), i.e., q=ne where n I. Elementary charge is the charge of an electron, approximately -1.602 x 10^-19coulombs (C).
• Conservation: The total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant over time. Charge cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one object to another. This principle is known as the conservation of electric charge.
• Additivity: The total charge of a system is the algebraic sum(considering the correct sign) of the individual charges within it.

Types of Charged Particles

There are primarily two types of charged particles which are discussed below:

Positively Charged Particles

Protons are the positively charged particles that are found in the nucleus of an atom. Protons have a mass of about 1 u. A particle gain positive charge when it lose electrons.

Negatively Charged Particles

Electrons are Negatively charged subatomic particles that surround the nucleus of an atom. Electrons have a much smaller mass of about 0.0005u. Electrons are located outside the nucleus in the outermost regions of the atom, called electron shells. A particle gain negative charge when its gains electron from other particle

After from positive and negatively charged particles, there are neutral particles which are discussed below:

Neutral Particles

Neutrons are Neutral subatomic particles that are also found in the nucleus of an atom. Neutrons have a mass of about 1 u.

Coulomb’s law

Coulomb’s law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force F between two point charges q₁ and q₂ is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. Mathematically, Coulomb’s law is expressed as:

F = k q₁q₂/r²

where

• r is the distance between two charges
• k is the proportionality constant.

k = 1/4π????₀ = 9 × 10⁹ Nm²C^-2

Superposition Principle

Total force exerted on a charged particle by multiple charged particles is the vector sum of the forces exerted by each individual particle. This principle holds true because the electrostatic force obeys Coulomb’s law, which is a linear relationship.

What is Electric Field?

The electric field at a given point is defined as the force per unit charge experienced by a small positive test charge q₀ placed at that point. Mathematically, the electric field E due to a point charge q is given by:

E = F/q₀ = q/4π????₀r² r

The electric field emanates radially outward when q is positive, and conversely, it converges radially inward when q is negative.

Electric Field Lines

These are imaginary lines drawn in a way that the tangent at any given point on the line represents the direction of the electric field at that point. Some key characteristics of field lines include:

• They form continuous unbroken curves.
• They never intersect.
• They extend from positive to negative charges, there can be no closed loops.

Electric Flux

Electric flux quantifies the number of electric field lines passing through a surface. Mathematically, electric flux through a surface S is defined as the surface integral of the electric field E over the surface:

Φ_E = ∫_S E.dA

The dot product indicates the projection of the electric field vector onto the area vector.

The SI unit of electric flux is Nm² C^-1.

What is an Electric Dipole?

An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite electric charges separated by a distance. These charges create an electric field around the dipole. The magnitude of the electric dipole moment, denoted by p, is the product of the magnitude of either charge q and the separation distance 2a between them:

p = 2qa

Electric Field Along Equator of Dipole

The derivation of electric field along equator of dipole is shown below:

Resolving E into horizontal and vertical components. The vertical components (E sin θ) strike off each other. Therefore the electric field at A is 2 E cos θ.

Where E = q/4π????₀( a²+r²)

E_A = 2q/4π????₀( a²+r²) cos θ

From figure ,

cos θ = a/√(a²+r²)

E_A = 2qa / 4π????₀( a²+r²)^3/2

We know Dipole moment p = 2qa

E_A = (-p/4π????₀) (1/(a²+r²)^3/2

For r >> a

E = -p/4π????₀r³

Electric Field Along Axis of Dipole

The derivation of electric field along axis of dipole is discussed below:

AB is electric dipole of two point charges -q, +q separated by a distance 2d.

Electric field at P due to +q at B,

E₁ = q / 4π????₀ (r – d)²

Electric field at P due to -q at A,

E₂ = q / 4π????₀ (r + d)²

Resultant electric field, E = E₁ – E₂

E = q / 4π????₀ [ 1/(r – d)² – 1/(r + d)²]

E = q / 4π????₀ [4rd/ (r² – d²)²]

Since point P is far away from the dipole, then r>>d

E = 4qrd / 4π????₀ r⁴

E = 4qd / 4π????₀ r³

We know Dipole moment p = 2qd

E= 2p/4π????₀r³

Point to be noted : Electric field for dipole varies as 1/r³ not 1/r².

Gauss’ law

Gauss’ law for electrostatics states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the enclosed electric charge. This includes the bound charge due to polarization. The coefficient of proportionality is the reciprocal of the permittivity of free space(ε₀). Mathematically, this can be expressed as

∮E.ds = Q/????₀

Where E is the electric field, ds is the infinitesimal area element and the closed integral of E over ds gives the electric flux. Important points to be noted: the area must be of a closed surface, the charge considered must be the charge enclosed by this surface.

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Conductors: Conductors are materials with low electrical resistivity, strong electrical conductivity, and ease of electricity conductivity. Charge can flow across conductors when a voltage is supplied to them.

Semiconductors: Semiconductors are materials with a conductivity value in between that of an insulator and a conductor. When required, semiconductors can function as both a conductor and an insulator.

Insulators : Insulators are materials that don’t conduct electricity. Current cannot flow through insulators. Insulators are used to shield ourselves from the potentially harmful effects of electricity passing via conductors.

Dielectric Strength

Dielectric strength refers to an insulating material’s electrical strength. It is the highest electric field that a substance is capable of withstanding before degrading and turning electrically conductive.

Surface Charge Density

Surface charge density refers to the amount of electric charge per unit area on a two-dimensional surface. It is a measurement of the total electric charge that has built up on a surface.

Electric Potential (V)

Electric potential (also known as voltage) is the difference in potential energy per unit charge between two points in an electric field. It is a scalar with the volt (V) as its unit.

V = Q/(4πε₀r) is the formula for electric potential.

Equipotential Surface

An equipotential surface is a region in space where all points have the same potential. Although it is typically used in reference to scalar potentials, vector potentials can also be considered.

Charged Particles in Electric Field

When a charged particle enters an electric field, it accelerates in the direction of the field lines. The direction of the electric field is always the force acting on the particle. The particle in the electric field will follow a straight path. However, the particle will either be attracted to or repelled by the charge depending on its polarity. A charged particle experiences force regardless of its velocity. The particle’s path is bent by the field, which is perpendicular to the velocity.

Combined Field Due to Two Point Charges

If there are many source charges, each contributes to the electric field at every site in their area. The electric field at a point in space close to the source charges is the vector sum of the electric fields caused by each source charge. Assume that the set of source charges consists of two charged particles. The electric field vector resulting from the first charged particle plus the electric field vector resulting from the second charged particle equals the electric field at point P.

Determining the overall electric field at place P is a vector addition since the two electric field vectors that contribute to it are vectors.

Therefore, the electric field intensity at each point resulting from a system or group of charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric field intensities attributable to individual charges at the same site. The vector sum of electric field intensities is given by E=E1+E2+E3+..+En.

Electric Lines of Force

Electric lines of force are imaginary lines or curves formed across an electric field. The direction that a tiny free positive charge will go along a line of force is known as its direction. Since two tangents can be traced to the two lines of force at the intersection, electric lines of force never cross. This indicates that there will be two electric field directions at the intersection, which is not feasible.

Electrostatic Formulas

The important formulas required in Electrostatics are as follows: