Gas Chromatography (GC) is a technique used in analytical chemistry for separating and analyzing volatile compounds in a mixture. This technique uses a mobile phase to carry the sample through the stationary phase. The compounds interact with the stationary phase at different rates, resulting in distinct retention times and separation of the components. Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett discovered it in the early 1900s to separate compounds. It can analyze volatile mixtures in human breath, blood, saliva, and air samples.

In this article, we look into what gas chromatography is, its definition, principle, separation mechanism, types, etc.

What is Gas Chromatography?

Gas chromatography (GC) is a powerful analytical technique used to separate, identify, and quantify individual chemical components in complex mixtures. It is a type of chromatography that separates components in a mixture based on the difference in partitioning behavior between mobile and stationary phases. It works by introducing a sample into a stream of inert gas, which carries the sample through the packed column. The mobile phase is usually an inert gas and the stationary phase can be solid or liquid. It is widely used in various fields, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, environmental toxins, and forensic science.

Gas Chromatography Definition

Gas chromatography (GC) is an analytical technique used to separate individual chemical components in complex mixtures and analyze those components.

Instruments of Gas Chromatography

The instrument that performs gas chromatography is called Gas Chromatograph. The components of gas chromatograph are mentioned below:

• Column: It is a coiled tube made of metal or glass material that can withstand high temperatures. The column is filled with a stationary phase, which separates the components in the sample.
• Sample injection system: A system that vaporizes and injects the sample into the carrier gas stream.
• Detector: A device that measures the quantity of the components that exit the column.
• Temperature control: A system that maintains a constant temperature throughout the column to ensure consistent separation of the components.
• Flow rate control: A system that adjusts the flow rate of the carrier gas to maintain a constant gas flow through the column.
• Data processing system: A computer system that processes the data from the detector and displays the chromatogram, a graph of the detector response versus time.

Gas Chromatography Diagram

Carrier Gas and Stationary Phase

A high-pressure gas cylinder containing an inert gas, such as helium or nitrogen, which is used to transport the sample through the column. Helium is preferred for thermal conductivity detectors due to its high thermal conductivity. Stationary phase is a non-volatile liquid or solid that interacts with the sample components, causing them to partition between the stationary and mobile phases.

Principles of Gas Chromatography

The principle of gas chromatography (GC) is based on the partitioning behavior of volatile compounds between a mobile phase (usually an inert gas) and a stationary phase (liquid or solid).

• The components in the mixture are distributed between two phases: a stationary phase and a mobile phase gas, or carrier gas, that carries the mixture through the stationary phase.
• Because of the differences in structure and properties of each component, the affinity and size of each interaction with the stationary phase are not identical.
• Thus, under the same driving force, the retention time of different components differs in the column, moving out of the column in different orders.
• However, Gas Chromatography is limited to analyzing volatile compounds and can be challenging for highly polar substances, which may require derivatization to increase their volatility.

Mechanism of Separation in Gas Chromatography

The mechanism of separation in gas chromatography (GC) involves the following processes:

• The partitioning of volatile compounds between a mobile phase and a stationary phase.
• The sample is injected into the instrument, where it is vaporized and carried by the mobile gas phase (carrier gas) through the column.
• The stationary phase is coated on the column’s inner wall or adsorbed onto a solid support.
• During the separation process, the sample components interact with the stationary phase at different rates, depending on their chemical and physical properties. The components with higher affinity for the stationary phase spend more time in the column and are eluted later than those with lower affinity.
• The detector measures the quantity of the components that exit the column, and the data is used to identify and quantify the components in the sample.

Process of Gas Chromatography

The gas chromatography (GC) process is carried out in the following steps:

Sample injection and Vaporization

Sample injection is a crucial step in gas chromatography (GC) that involves introducing the sample into the instrument and vaporizing it. There are several injection techniques available, including splitless injection, split injection, direct injection, and on-column injection. The choice of injection technique depends on the sample type, concentration, and desired sensitivity.

Carrier Gas Flow

Carrier gas flow is a critical component of gas chromatography (GC) that involves using an inert gas, such as helium or nitrogen, to carry the sample through the column. The flow rate of the carrier gas is carefully controlled to ensure consistent separation of the components in the sample. The carrier gas should be dry, oxygen-free, and inert chemicals are present. The choice of carrier gas depends on the application, and helium is preferred for thermal conductivity detectors due to its high thermal conductivity. The flow rate can be controlled by adjusting the pressure, column flow rate, or linear velocity.

Chromatographic Separation

Chromatographic separation is a technique used to separate a mixture of chemical substances into its individual components. The separation is based on the differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases. The components in the mixture are distributed between the two phases. Because of the differences in structures and properties of each component, the affinity and size of each interaction with the stationary phase are not identical.

Thus, under the same driving force, the retention time of different components differs in the column, moving out of the column in different orders. The components are separated inside the column, and the detector measures the quantity of the components that exit the column.

Detection and Analysis

In gas chromatography (GC), detecting separated components is essential. Several types of detectors are used in GC, which can be categorized as destructive or non-destructive.

Destructive detectors

• Flame Ionization Detector (FID): Detects organic compounds containing carbon atoms.
• Flame Photometric Detector (FPD): Detects compounds containing phosphorus or sulfur.
• Nitrogen Phosphorus Detector (NPD): Detects nitrogen and phosphorus-containing compounds.
• Atomic Emission Detector (AED): Detects elements based on their emission spectra.
• Mass Spectrometer (MS): Identifies compounds based on their mass spectrum.

Non-destructive detectors

• Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD): Detects changes in thermal conductivity.
• Electron Capture Detector (ECD): Detects compounds that capture electrons, such as halogenated compounds.
• Photoionization Detector (PID): Detects volatile organic compounds.
• Olfactometric Detector: Uses human smell to detect specific odors.

Data Analysis

Data Analysis is a critical step in gas chromatography (GC) that involves processing and interpreting the data obtained from the detector. The data is typically displayed as a chromatogram, which is a graph of the detector response versus time. The chromatogram provides information about the retention time, peak shape, and peak area of each component in the sample.

The retention time is the time it takes for an element to travel through the column and reach the detector. The peak shape provides information about the efficiency of the separation, while the peak area is proportional to the amount of the component in the sample. The data can be analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively, and various methods are available for data analysis, including pattern recognition, classification, and calibration curves.

The components in the sample are identified based on their retention times and compared to known standards or databases. It is a highly sensitive, efficient, and selective technique that can separate volatile compounds based on their retention times and can be hyphenated with mass spectrometry for identification purposes.

Types of Gas Chromatography

Gas chromatography (GC) can be classified into two main types:

• Gas-Solid Chromatography (GSC)
• Gas-Liquid Chromatography (GLC)

GC can also be classified based on the type of detector used, such as flame ionization detector (FID), thermal conductivity detector (TCD), electron capture detector (ECD), and mass spectrometry (MS). The choice of GC type and detector depends on the specific application and the types of compounds present in the sample.

Gas-Solid Chromatography

Gas-solid chromatography is a technique in which the stationary phase is in a solid state, and the mobile phase is in a gaseous state. It is used for the separation of volatile components in a mixture. The stationary phase is applied to the inner wall of a tube known as the chromatographic column. The molecules of the stationary phase can interact with the molecules in the mobile phase. Gas-solid chromatography can be used at high temperatures because of low volatility and increased stability.

Gas-liquid Chromatography

Gas-liquid chromatography GLC is the more common form, where the stationary phase is a liquid adsorbed onto a solid or immobilized on the inner surface of a capillary column, and the mobile phase is an inert gas such as helium or nitrogen. In GLC, the separation of compounds is based on their different affinities for the liquid stationary phase and their volatility. Compounds with higher affinity for the liquid phase will spend more time in the stationary phase and thus take longer to travel through the column, resulting in a later elution time.

Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique to measure the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ions in a sample. The results are presented as a mass spectrum, showing the ions’ relative abundances on the y-axis and their m/z ratios on the x-axis. It can identify unknown compounds, determine the isotopic composition of elements, and elucidate the chemical identity or structure of molecules and other chemical compounds.

It is a powerful qualitative and quantitative analytical tool that can separate ions based on their mass-to-charge ratios. The three essential functions of a mass spectrometer are:

• Ionization: Molecules are converted to ions, usually by losing an electron.
• Mass analysis: Ions are sorted and separated according to their mass-to-charge ratios.
• Detection: Separated ions are measured, and their data is stored and analyzed in a computer.

Applications of Gas Chromatography

Gas Chromatography has got various applications in industrial and research processes. Let’s have a look into some of the applications of gas chromatography:

• Chemical Analysis in Pharmaceuticals: Gas chromatography is extensively used in the pharmaceutical industry for analyzing drug compounds, determining the purity of pharmaceutical products.
• Environmental Analysis: Gas chromatography is employed in environmental monitoring to analyze air, water, soil, and sediment samples for the presence of organic pollutants and other contaminants.
• Food and Beverage Analysis: Gas chromatography is utilized in food and beverage industries for quality control, authenticity testing, and analysis of flavor compounds, additives, preservatives, and contaminants.
• Forensic Analysis: Gas chromatography is an important tool in forensic science for analyzing forensic samples such as blood, urine, saliva, hair, and fibers.
• Petrochemical Analysis: Gas chromatography is widely used in the petrochemical industry for analyzing petroleum products, crude oil, natural gas, and refinery gases.

Advantages of Gas Chromatography

Gas chromatography (GC) offers several advantages that make it a widely used analytical technique:

• High sensitivity: GC can detect deficient concentrations of compounds, making it suitable for trace analysis.
• High resolution: It can separate complex mixtures into individual components, providing detailed information about the sample.
• Rapid analysis: It can analyze samples quickly, which is beneficial for time-sensitive applications.
• Small sample usage: GC requires only tiny amounts of sample, which is economical and environmentally friendly.
• Good selectivity: GC can separate compounds with similar chemical structures, making it helpful in identifying unknown compounds.
• Wide application: It is used in various fields, including pharmaceuticals, environmental analysis, forensics, and clinical research.

Limitations of Gas Chromatography

Gas chromatography (GC) has several limitations and challenges that must be considered:

• Volatility constraints: GC is limited to the analysis of volatile compounds, which may exclude some non-volatile or high-boiling-point compounds
• Derivatization: Some compounds may require derivatization to improve their volatility and stability, which can be time-consuming and may introduce additional errors.
• Column degradation: GC columns can be damaged by improper use, such as running the oven without carrier gas flow or using the wrong syringe, which can lead to column degradation and loss of efficiency
• Peak tailing: Some compounds may exhibit peak tailing, which can affect the accuracy of quantitative analysis.
• Instrumental maintenance: Regular maintenance is required to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the instrument
• Thermal degradation: High temperatures required for GC can lead to thermal degradation of some compounds, which may affect the accuracy of the analysis

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